Review on Orogenic Gold Deposits
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摘要: 造山型金矿指与大洋板块俯冲和陆块拼贴有关、产在汇聚板块边界变质地体内部或者边缘受韧-脆性断裂构造控制的, 成矿流体以低盐度H2O-CO2-CH4为主要特征的, 成矿深度(2~20 km)和温度(200~650℃)及其相应的蚀变矿化组合有较大变化的系列金矿床.造山型金矿形成与超大陆聚合时限具有一致性.由于围岩类型和控矿构造多样性、地球化学特征具有多解性、金属源区和演化的不确定性以及成矿就位和物质起源的空间差距, 造山型金矿成因模式有以下两个主要观点.第一种为大陆地壳变质流体成因模式, 认为造山型金矿形成于造山作用同变质阶段, 并随岩石圈演化矿床的物质来源发生变化；富金流体的释放由上地壳岩石绿片岩相到角闪岩相的进变质作用导致, 该过程中的黄铁矿向磁黄铁矿转变释放了大量的金, 这种模式被广泛运用于赋存在绿片岩相中的显生宙造山型金矿.然而越来越多的实例证实造山型金矿主要形成于峰期变质的退变质阶段或者与区域变质没有任何关系, 变质流体成因模式受到了强烈质疑；与大陆地壳变质模式相对立的是幔源流体模式, 其认为流体起源于俯冲洋壳脱水或富集地幔再活化, 不同时代和地区的成矿流体具有一致性；尽管该模式不符合传统的平衡条件下的相变原理, 但是基于幔源流体的存在及其浅部运移的大量观测, 初步认为成矿流体是在超临界和非平衡条件下完成了金属的幔→壳迁移.中国造山型金矿分布于江南造山带志留纪、天山-阿尔泰二叠纪、华北克拉通北缘三叠-侏罗纪、特提斯造山带二叠-侏罗纪、华南板块晚三叠世-侏罗纪、华北克拉通东南缘白垩纪、青藏高原及周缘古近纪等七大成矿带, 主要受到了显生宙不同时代造山作用的控制, 成矿时代晚于变质峰期, 重要成矿带大型矿集区(胶东、哀牢山、扬子西缘)的实例解剖均支持幔源流体成因模式.Abstract: The orogenic gold deposits show features as follows:relation to oceanic plate subduction and terrane accretion, hosted by metamorphic massif along convergent plate boundaries, controlled by ductile to brittle shear zones, low salinity and H2O-CO2-CH4 dominating ore fluid, wide formation depths varying from about 2 to 20 km and formation temperatures ranging within 200-650℃, temperature-dependent alteration and ore mineral assemblages. Orogenic gold deposits formed coevally to the time of cycled convergences of supercontinents. Due to the diversity of wall rock types and ore-controlling structures, ambiguity of ore geochemistry, uncertainty of fluid and metal sources and their evolutions, and disparity between source regions and ore deposition locations, two distinct origin models were proposed for orogenic gold deposits. The first is metamorphic fluid model, in which the deposits formed in prograde metamorphism of orogeny with different source from evolving regional upper crust. The auriferous fluid is considered to release from greenschist-to amphibolite-facies prograde metamorphism of upper crustal rocks, during which gold and other metals are liberated from transformation of pyrite to pyrrhotite. This model was universally applied to Phanerozoic orogenic gold deposit shosted by greenschist-facies terranes. However, it was recognized that most orogenic gold deposits formed in retrogression stage subsequent to peak metamorphism or without any spatial-temporal link to regional metamorphism, which challenged the metamorphic fluid model. Thus the mantle fluid model, which indicates that ore fluids for orogenic gold deposits are derived from devolatilization of subducted oceanic plate or fertile mantle, was proposed. Although the mantle fluid model is not compatible with the petrological diagram in phase equilibrium condition, the extensive proofs for the existence of mantle fluids and their appearance near surface support that mantle fluids are capable to transport to upper crustal levels under supercritical conditions and phase unequilibrium. The Chinese orogenic gold deposits are divided into seven gold belts:Silurian belt along Jiangnan orogen, Permian belt in Tianshan and Altay orogen, Triassic to Jurassic one along northern margin of North China craton (Solonker orogen), Triassic to Jurassic one within Paleo-Tethyan orogens, Jurassic one along southern margin of South China block possibly controlled by the Paleo-Tethyan closure, Cretaceous one along southern margins of North China craton, and Paleogene one in Tibetan Plateau and its margins. Orogenic gold deposits in China formed in Phanerozoic in association with various orogeny, with ore-forming ages post dating peak metamorphism. Case studies on gold districts in these belts, such as Jiaodong, Ailaoshan, and western margin of Yangtze craton, all favored the mantle fluid model.
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Key words:
- orogenic gold deposit /
- mantle fluid /
- metamorphic fluid /
- structural control /
- tectonic setting /
- deposits
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图 1 地壳连续成矿模式示意
据Groves (1993)和Groves et al.(1998)
Fig. 1. Schematic distribution and characteristics of orogenic gold deposits in continuum model
图 2 造山型金矿成矿大地构造背景
a.俯冲带上增生楔和岩浆弧带，据Goldfarb et al.(2005)；b.洋脊俯冲背景下的倒转弧后盆地，据Tomkins (2010)；c.俯冲板片回返与克拉通破坏，据Goldfarb and Groves (2015)；d.富集岩石圈地幔拆沉与大型穹窿，据Zhao et al.(2019)
Fig. 2. Geotectonic background for metallogenesis of orogenic gold deposits
图 3 全球造山型金矿形成时代分布及地壳生长模式统计
Fig. 3. Statistics of formation ages for global orogenic gold deposits in earth history
图 4 造山型金矿构造控矿示意
a.褶皱转折端控矿示意图，据Cox et al.(1991)修改；b.断裂弯曲转折端控矿示意图，据Yang et al.(2018b)修改；c.剪切带张性或压性衔接部位控矿示意图，据Hodkiewicz et al.(2009)修改；d.剪切带或断裂转折端控矿，据Weinberg et al.(2004)修改
Fig. 4. Schematic diagrams of structural control on orogenic deposits
图 5 (a) 假定的绿片岩相以上进变质区域流体压力剖面；(b)完整岩石脆性破裂模式图；(c)格里菲斯-库伦岩石破裂准则；(d) log(aK+/aH+) vs. log(aNa+/aH+)相图
图a. λv为流体压力因子，λv=pf(流体压力) /σv(岩石垂向应力)(据Sibson，2004)；b.展示流体因子和差应力改变可诱发岩石破裂.差应力大于等于5.7倍岩石抗张强度时，岩石产生剪裂隙；差应力小于等于4倍岩石抗张强度时，岩石将产生张裂隙；差应力介于4倍和5.7倍岩石抗张强度时，岩石将产生混合的张剪裂隙(据Cox，2019)；c.黄色、蓝色、灰色颜色代表花岗岩原岩、软化花岗岩、断裂活化的莫尔圆和包络线(剧Sibson and Scott, 1998)；d.指示蚀变过程矿物转化，据Yang et al. (2018b)修改；黑色波浪线代表胶东新立金矿蚀变反应路径，G代表反应前后吉布斯自由能变化
Fig. 5. (a) Hypothetical fluid⁃pressure profile through the carapace to a region undergoing prograde metamorphism defining the seismogenic zone; (b) schematic illustration of a brittle failure mode diagram for intact rock failure; (c) composite Griffith⁃ Coulomb failure envelopes for intact rock (long dash line) with tensile strength; (d) isothermal⁃isobaric log(aK+/aH+) vs. log(aNa+/aH+) diagram
图 6 变质流体成因模式示意图
a.变质峰期前成矿，据Phillips and Powell (2009)；b.绿片岩相—角闪岩相进变质脱水，据Phillips and Powell (2010)；c.500~650 ℃为主要脱水区间，据Zhong et al.(2015)；d.变质体系有水＞650~700 ℃情况下引起部分熔融，据Phillips and Powell (2009)；NCKFMASH代表着Na2O–CaO–K2O–FeO–MgO–Al2O3–SiO2–H2O初始组分体系
Fig. 6. Schematic graphs for metamorphic fluid model
图 7 地幔流体成因模式示意
a.俯冲带大洋地壳脱水和回返模式，据Peacock (1990)和Groves et al.(2019)；b.克拉通破坏富集地幔脱气模式，指示交代岩石圈地幔为流体和金属来源，据Goldfarb and Santosh(2014)和Deng et al.(2015c)；c.岩石圈拆沉富集地幔脱气模式，指示交代富集岩石圈地幔作为流体储库，据Zhao et al.(2019)
Fig. 7. Schematic illustrations of mantle fluid model
图 8 中国造山型金矿成矿带划分
据Deng and Wang (2016)；典型造山型金矿带分布：a.Zr/U⁃Pb；b.Mol/Re⁃Os；c.Py/Re⁃Os；d.Apy, Re⁃Os；e.Ser/Ar⁃Ar；f.Ms/Ar⁃Ar；g.Phl/ Ar⁃Ar；h.Bt/Ar⁃Ar；i.Kfs/Ar⁃Ar；j.scheelite/Sm⁃Nd；k.Ser/Rb⁃Sr
Fig. 8. Chinese orogenic gold belts divided by orogens and their forming ages
图 9 中国造山型金成矿与超高压变质时代对比
Fig. 9. Age contrasts between Chinese orogenic gold deposits and ultra⁃high pressure metamorphism
图 10 矿床古地磁研究限定成矿与剪切时代
据Gao et al.(2018)；a.印支地块不同地区130~20 Ma期间的古纬度值：28.4°±1.1°N与19.0°±3.6°N分别代表印支地块130~40 Ma和20 Ma的平均古纬度值；b.印支地块不同地区相对于东亚稳定区的纬向滑移量：-7.5°±5.5°为印支地块自40 Ma到20 Ma期间的平均南向滑移量；c、d.印支地块相对于华南板块在40 Ma和20 Ma的古地理位置
Fig. 10. Deposit paleomagnetism data constrain mineralization and shearing ages
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